FROM COMMON TO UNCOMMON - THE GREAT DISCOVERIES IN SCIENCE

How the question ‘why’ miraculously transforms the common to the uncommon and the ordinary to the extra-ordinary in science

Like many others in my generation I havean abiding interest in science. For one thing, I have been a student of science, both in school and the university.I did very well in that subject, whereas, I always used to score low in Mathematics. Even during my busy professional years, I kept abreast of latest scientific developments across the globe.

The ‘Why’ questionI must confess that my chief source of inspiration was my own father who was a scientist of standing;hewas alsomy teacher, and the Principal of our college.  His classes on the History of Science introduced us to the fascinating world of science and scientists. Quoting great scientists, he used to explain to us that, what we mean by science is nothing, but the discovery of laws of nature.

A scientist makesobservations, proposes a hypothesis, puts it to test, formulates a theory, and, thereafter, arrives at a law.But father emphasized that the key to any scientific discovery is asking the question ‘why’, beforemaking observations of natural phenomena. Today, many years after he explained to us in our class room about science and its methods, I, on reflection, realize how true those words were, from my own observation and experience.

The SunLet’s take the most common example of the Sun. We see the Sun rising every day in the east and setting in the west. Except in an aesthetic, religious, poetic or artistic sense, no one thinks deeply (scientifically) about the Sun. For a very long time our ancestors simply believed that the Sun revolved around the Earth, until the question was settled through computations by Copernicus and through observations, with the aid of atelescope, by Galileo. 

Among the ancient civilizations, we know that the Greeks played a prominent role in the evolution of modern science. Greek scholars keenly observed natural phenomena, and interpreted them, based on their observations and experiments. They could accurately predict solar eclipses.They made significant contributions to natural sciences and mathematics, because they were troubled by the question ‘why’.

 

 Physics

Atoms and their structureEveryday in our kitchen we cut vegetables into smaller and smaller piecesduring cooking. We do not bother to imagine as to what happens when it reaches a point where it cannot be further cut into smaller pieces. Now, look at the Greeks.Leucippus and his pupilDemocritus in the 5th century BCE(not to forget Sage Kanada, in India before them) proposed that matter consists of indestructible, indivisible units called atoms. In early 1800s, John Dalton (1766-1844), scientist, postulated that each chemical element is ultimately made up of tiny indivisible particles.

No one believed that there lies a dynamic world buried deep within the atom, until the sub-atomic particles were discovered one by one,through careful observation and experimentation. It took almost another hundred years to discover the sub-atomic particles like the Electron (1897-JJ Thompson), Proton (E.  Rutherford 1909) and Neutrons (James Chadwick-1932).

In the year 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962) proposed a model for atomic structure, describing an atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits, with varying energy levels.Particles still smaller like the Quarks (smallest), Muons, Leptons, Boson and Higg’s Boson were discovered one after another between the period 1936 (Muons) and 2012 (Higgs Bosons) by the inspired scientists. Curiosity had led those scientists to look deeper and deeper within the atom.

Quantum Mechanics and RelativityIn the early twentieth century, the very foundations of physics were shaken by two unexpected developments----the beginning of Quantum Mechanics that revolutionized human understanding of atomic and sub-atomic processes,and, the Theory of Relativity which changed our understanding of the universe.Quantum Mechanics and Relativity together, are the two pillars of modern physics.

Working on the problem of black-body radiation, Max plank (1848-1947), theoretical physicist and the ‘originator’ of quantum theory, postulated in 1900 that electro-magnetic energy could be emitted only as quanta (discrete packets). Taking a cue from Plank,  Einstein, in 1905, proposed a theory of the photo-electric effect that light consists of tiny packets of energy known as photons or light quanta, for which he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.

All of us watch the Sun’s rays almost daily, but, no onecould imagine it comprising of packets of energy (counterintuitively, light is also considered a wave).

Quantum mechanics arosegradually from the abovetheories and acquired momentumby  mid-1920s, due to the brilliant work by a group young scientists --Werner Heisenberg (awarded Nobel prize in Physics in 1932), Erwin Schrödinger&Paul Dirac (shared Nobel Prize in 1933), Wolfgang Pauli (1945) and Max Born (1954) and others, led by Neils Bohr (1922), the great Physicist . They,together,unravelled the weird behaviour of matterat finest -microscopic level to explain observations, which could not be reconciled withclassical physics.Of all the scientists cited above two---Heisenberg (1901-76) and Schrodinger (1887-1961) stand out for their signature equations.

The Uncertainty PrincipleWe all know that our life is full of uncertainty. Even then, to believe that matter at microscopic levels is governed by probability is indeed very strange. As postulated by Bohr, an electron is a material particle. Therefore, one can determine its position and momentum at the same time. But if the electron is treated as a wave, the position is quite the opposite.

 Heisenberg in 1927 formulated the Uncertainty Principle which says that, at sub-microscopic-quantum levels,the position and momentum of an electron cannot be ascertained simultaneously. The insight which led to its formulation came after painstakingly developing a matrix and deep meditation thereafter, into the behaviour of electrons.

Schrodinger’s CatI find cats often roaming around in my back yard. But I never could imagine that a cat is indeed connected to quantum phenomenon! Yes, I am speaking about a famous cat----none other than Schrodinger’s cat!

Schrödinger in 1935 developed an ingenious thought experiment in which a cat was supposedly shut in a sealed box.  A radio-active material connected to a Geiger Counter, and a vial of poison gas isalso placed along side.If the radio-active material decays it would trigger the Geiger counter, which in turn would trigger a hammer to fall on the vial releasing poison gas---- which may or may not kill the cat.

After a while what happens to the cat? According to Schrodinger in the unobserved state it is both alive and dead. But only when we open the box and observe it,do we know whether it is actually dead or alive.This experiment was devised to illustrate quantum superposition(wherein every quantum state can be represented as a sum of two or more other distinct states).When we observe the cat, the superposition collapses (called decoherence).

Quantum entanglement occurs when a group of particles are generated, interact and share special proximity in such a way that the quantum state viz. position, momentum, spin and polarization of each particle of the group cannot be described independently of the state of others, including when the particles are separated by a vast distance, which Einstein called ‘spooky action at a distance’.Simply speaking entanglement implies that when two particles, such as a pair of photons or electrons, are entangled, they remain connected, even when separated by vast distances.

Today we know that superpositionand quantum entanglementcan influence chemical and biochemical reactions and other physical processes,and that they vastlyimprove the processing speed in the quantum computers.Quantum mechanics has changed the way we think.

Relativity

When we were school children, the formula E= mc 2 (Energy= mass x acceleration) was like a code or mantra that opened the vision of the vast universe instantly before us, replacing Newton’s F=ma (Force= mass x acceleration) that was the most famous scientific formula at that time.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955), a Germany- born physicist,proposed and published two ground breaking theories known as- Special Relativity and GeneralRelativity,in 1905 and 1915, respectively. ‘Special relativity applies to all physical phenomena in the absence of gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation based on the postulate of equivalence of acceleration and gravity. Although these formulations appear simple, the two theories are indeed difficult to comprehend, being counterintuitive.

Special Theory of RelativityBetween 1902 and 1909 Einstein worked as a Technical Assistant, class-111, in the Swiss Patent Office, Berne, Switzerland (according to him it washis ‘worldly cloister’, where he ‘hatched most beautiful ideas’).  He had very little work in the Patent Office, hence had plenty of leisure time in hand. While living in Berne he used to walk around the streets of Berne, with his friends, passing dailyby the iconic clock- tower in the city. Thus, he had the idea and opportunity to think deeply abouttime. Discussions with like-minded friends only sharpened his thinking.No wonder, Einstein in his Special Theory of Relativity, devoted much of his energy in discussing the concept of time.

We too look at our watches or casually look at the clock-towers in our cities, but we never bother about how we perceiveor experience time. Only persons of uncommon wisdom are ableto see the extra-ordinary in the ordinary.

Einstein showed that time is relative, not absolute, as Newton had claimed.The rate at which time flows depends upon where you are, and how fast you are traveling.And events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at different times for another.

The faster an object travels, the more slowly time passes for that object, as measured by a stationary observer. For example, for an astronaut in space time moves slower than for a person stationed on the earth. ‘If the astronauts were able to travel at the speed of light, their time would cease completely and they would only exist trapped in timelessness’.

Einstein's overturned the classical concept of time. He described the past, present and future as "persistent illusions”.“Time does not “flow”, then, it just “is”. He also contemplated the notion of time dilationand time travel.

 

On the nature of the universeEinstein dismissed the idea of ether (aether), the mysterious material that was believed to fill the  universe,  and acted as a medium for light waves to pass through.

Einstein, in the theory of Special Relativity, created a fundamental link between space and time. He added a 4th-dimension-time-to the existing three dimensions. As a result, he found that space and time were inextricablyinter-woven into a single continuum known as space-time, as against a totally separate time dimension, envisaged by all, including the great thinker Descartes in the 17th Century.

Unifying mass and energy,Einstein came up with the equation E=mc2showing the relationship between mass (m) and energy (E) and (c2) the velocity of light.It is based on the simple observation that the speed of light (denoted as ‘c’) in vacuum is a universal constant, irrespective of the frame of reference. Moreover, particles with non-zero mass can never actually reach “c”.

 

General Theory of Relativity

The concept of space-time was further refined in the General Theory of Relativity published in 1915 by Einstein when he realized that ‘perhaps gravity is not a field or force on top of space-time, but a feature of space-time itself’.

He explained how gravity is inbuilt into the fabric of space-time.Newton's law assumes that gravity is an innate force of an object that can act over a distance.Einstein completely overturned Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation and pointed out that gravity was an outcome ofwarping of the fabric of space-time, due to the objects.

This allows for the existence of black holes (regions of space in which space and time are so warped that nothing, not even light, can escape). Einstein predicted  violent events, such as the collision of two black holes, that create ripples in space-time known as gravitational waves.

 

His theories have been proved, both in laboratory experiments and in astronomical observations, to be ‘a remarkably accurate predictions of reality’. ‘He liked to think visually, coming up with experiments in his mind’s eye and working them around in his head, until he could see the ideas and physical principles with crystalline clarity’. Once again, the uncommon wisdom was on display!

Even today there is no parallel in science to match the genius of Einstein and the brilliance ofthe Theory of Relativity propounded by him.He is considered to be the man of the twentieth century. No doubt, the question ‘why’ triggered his great thoughts on the universe.

ChemistryUncommon wisdom is not limited only to the world of Physics. Examples can be cited from Chemistry, which is the study of atoms and molecules, elements and compounds and their inter reactions.

In this field too, simple observations have led to the formulation of universal laws. For example, in our daily life we do experience that matter only changes from one form to another,and, we are unable to create matter on our own.

The Law of Conservation ofMass states precisely the same thing. The French Chemist Antoine Lavoisier(1743-94) in 1789, after careful analysis and observation, postulated the Law of Conservation of Mass that states that in a chemical reaction, the mass of products in chemical reactions equals the mass of reactants. According to this law, the matter can neither be created nor be destroyed (since a part of the mass can be converted into energy, the same law is re-stated as Law of Conservation of Mass- Energy).

Kekule and his dreamIn Chemistry, we are familiar with the story of Kekule and his discovery of the ring structure of Benzene molecule. In 1858, August Kekule (1829-1896), German Chemist, and the founder of modern organic chemistry,proposed a ring structure for benzene, based on a vision of a snake biting its tail (today some scientists dispute the story) in a dream. Based on that discovery, he showed that carbon can link with itself to form long chains, which truly revolutionized organic chemistry. All of us dream, but we soon forget our dreams. Evidently, his deep thinking of a problem led to the discovery, while dreaming.

I have been attracted to the Le Chatelier’s Principle on equilibriums, which was postulated by the French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier(1850-1936). The Principle states that ‘if a constraint is applied to a system in equilibrium, the system will shift in such away, so as to annul the effect of that constraint’. This principle can be seen operational in our daily life. Its impact is felt in many a mechanical and biological processes, and even in the distant field of Economics.

Biological Sciences:- Now let’s move on from Chemistry to the field of Biological sciences. Three most significant theories in Biologyrelate to heredity and evolution of species.

For a long time, people knew that among human beings, as well as animals, birds and even plants, their offspring often resembled their progenitors, and that traits were passed on from one generation to the next. They called it heredity, but did not know the real mechanism by which transmission of traits occurred. It was left to Darwin, Mendel as well as Watson and Crick to explain the basis of inheritance.

Charles DarwinIt was in 1859 that Charles Darwin (1809-1882), English naturalist and biologist, published his theory of Evolution, with supporting evidence, in his famous work On the Origin of Species. Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), his contemporary, also put forward similar ideas.

Till then no one could give a logical explanation on how organisms evolved into diverse forms. A keen observer of nature, Darwin collected specimens during the long voyage by ship, and analysed the evidence. He explained the variations found in nature, the struggle for existence among species, and how natural selection operates randomly, and how the fittest among them survive. He also illustrated how adaptations helped the species survive.

Society, especiallythe church, was not prepared for the bombshell dropped by Darwin (even today, there are many who do not accept the theory of evolution). But it has been accepted as the most comprehensive, scientific and rational explanation on how evolution of species takes place.The theory of Evolution by Darwin remains a singular achievement of the human race in understanding nature,and has influenced every sphere of human thought.This is a classic case of how curiosity prompts unusual adventures of both the mind and the body.

Mendel and his experiments: - At least some of us grow Garden peas in our homes. In gardens, supported by lattices, they produce bright colourful flowers, radiating joy in their surroundings. To imagine that studies on these tendercreepers had led to the founding of an entirely new branch of science called Genetics is indeed astounding.

Gregor John Mendel (1822-84), an Austrian monk, is known as the father of Genetics, and is credited with formulating the laws of inheritance. He noticed variations among the garden pea plants(Lathyrusodoratus) grown inside his monastery compound. He wondered why those variations occurred. Between 1856-1863, Mendel conducted hybridization experiments on Garden Peas.

 He cross-bred Garden Peaswith seven contrasting characters like plant height, pod shape and colour, seed shape and colour, and flower position and colour for several generations, and painstakingly recorded his observations. The findings led him to formulate three laws on heredity known as Mendel’s Laws. His findings remained lost to the world for some time, but were re-discovered in 1900.

Mendel was the first to discover that the different traits in organisms are due to the presence of what he called the “factors”or ‘alleles’ (today we call them genes).The alleles occur in pairs, and one is dominant and the other recessive.  Hybrid offspring will only inherit the dominant trait in the phenotype. At the time of reproduction, pairs of alleles segregate independently during gamete (a mature male or female germ cell or sex cell) formation and re-unite randomly during fertilization.

Although Mendel laid down the basic rules of heredity, he was unable to identify the underlying biochemical basis of inheritance, given the then circumstances under which he lived. It was left to J.D.Watson (born 1928-) and F.H.C. Crick (1916-2004)in 1953to explain and propose a model for basic building blocks of life.

What is Life?It was Erwin Schrodinger, quantum scientist,who in his short book  “What is Life?” (Published in 1944),  suggested that the genetic material had to be in a complex molecule, which kept the genetic information in a kind of code that would determine the development and functioning of every living being.

This book was a great inspiration for James Watson and Francis Crick, two young scientists and sparked their interest in Genetics. They embarked on a mission to unravel the structure of DNA (Deoxy-Ribo Nucleic Acid). Although the existence of DNA was known since 1869, its structure or its role in genetic inheritance remained a mystery.

Working in Cavendish Lab of Cambridge University, the two scientistscombined the physical and chemical data, and proposed a double helix model for DNA molecule. X-ray crystallographic photographs developed by their colleague Rosalind Franklin (1920-58) (according to Watson, they ‘stole” her data) was central to the understanding of DNA structure proposed by the two. They shared the 1962 Nobel prize for Physiology and Medicine with Maurice H F Wilkins (Rosalind died before that).

Proposing the structure of DNA and explaining the Genetic code was one of the most momentous discoveries ever made in biological sciences.It may be remembered that the two scientists developed their famous model, without the aid of any sophisticated instruments, but throughimagination and the method of trial and error.

PhotosynthesisThere are other examples from biological sciences, like the phenomenon of Photosynthesis, where light energy from the Sun is converted to chemical energy by plants,using water and carbon di Oxide (Co2). Although this important process has existed since the beginning of time, everyone was totally oblivious of its existence, and it wasn’tproperly understood until the 1800s.

It wasn’t a case of just one scientist making this discovery; several different scientists, over a period of more than 200 years, contributed to the discovery of this important natural phenomena (Photosynthesis was partially discovered in the 1600’s by Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577-1644), a Belgian chemist, physiologist and physician. The overall photosynthetic equation (Balanced Photosynthesis Chemical Equation. Step 1: CO2 + H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + O2. Step 2: 6 CO2 + H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + O2) came to be known since the 19th century.

Human brainAnother example concerns the human brain. In ancient times people believed the heart to be the seat of our intellect and emotion. It was only from 16th century onwards that studies threw light on the role and function of the brain. In 1660, Belgian anatomist Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) created, based on painstaking efforts, a detailed map of the nervous system.

In 1906 Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) and Santago Ramon Cajal(1852-1934) independently identified the nerve cell. Thus, it has taken many centuries for the human beings to understand the structure and functions of their own brain, whereas, curiosity would have ensured their discovery long ago.

Now with modern sophisticated methods, humans are able to understand its finest structures and functions.The Human Brain Project will lead to its culmination.

Mathematics

As we all know Mathematics is the queen of all sciences. Max Tegmark, modern cosmologist, even states that the physical universe is not merely described by mathematics, but is mathematics (specifically, a mathematical structure)

Incompleteness TheoremsAmong the great theorems in Mathematics, the Incompleteness theorems by Kurt Gödel, (1906–1978), mathematician and logician,stands out.

Incompleteness theorem is the name given to two theorems (true mathematical statements), proved by Kurt Gödel in 1931. They are theorems in mathematical logicand are critical to scientific thoughts.

Wikipedia has explained it very simply. Mathematicians once thought that everything that is true has a mathematical proof. A system that has this property is called complete; one that does not is called incomplete. Also, mathematical ideas should not have contradictions. This means that they should not be true and false at the same time. A system that does not include contradictions is called consistent. These systems are based on sets of axioms, which are statements that are assumed as true, and need no proof.

Gödelproved thatevery non-trivial formal system is either incomplete or inconsistent and that any consistent, sufficiently rich axiomatic system of ordinary arithmetic contains statements that can be neither proved or disproved.There will always be questions that cannot be answered, using a certain set of axioms. One cannot prove that a system of axioms is consistent, unless one uses a different set of axioms.

Imaginary numberis another ingenious (counterintuitive) invention in Mathematics. 

Imaginary number is a complex number that can be written as a real number multiplied by the imaginary uniti, which is defined by its property.

According to Wikipedia,  it was originally coined in the 17th century by René Descartes as a derogatory term and regarded as fictitious or useless.The concept gained wide acceptance following the work of Leonhard Euler (in the 18th century) and Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Carl Friedrich Gauss (in the early 19th century).

An imaginary number bi can be added to a real number a to form a complex number of the form a + bi.It is widely used in modern physics to formulate equations for physical phenomenon, viz. unification of space-time dimensions.

Science TodayTo day scientific methodology and investigations have undergone radical changes.

 In modern age we donot find scientists sitting in the splendid isolation of their labs, painstakingly conducting experiments with the aid of crude instruments, thinking deeply andproposing universal laws.

Research is mostly based on applied sciences,being carried out using cutting-edge technology, in sophisticated laboratories. Moreover,research is essentially multi-disciplinary,being carried out by teams of researchers. However, the ‘why’ question which evoked the curiosity of scientists in olden days, still remains the basic inspiration for research.

The question ‘why’ which leads to uncommon sense from common sense,asked by great mindsled to the flowering of the human intellect; it would continue to expand the frontiers of science in the coming centuries too.